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2026.04.07
Varna refers to the four basic social classes in India's caste system. This concept, meaning "color" in Sanskrit, consists of four tiers: Brahmin (priests), Kshatriya (royalty and warriors), Vaishya (merchants), and Shudra (laborers).
This article explains in detail everything from the etymology and religious basis of varna to the specific roles of each tier, its difference from jati, its historical development, and its influence in modern India. An overview of the caste system This is essential background knowledge for understanding it.
Varna means "color" in Sanskrit. Its origin is said to be a social classification that arose from the process in which the Aryans, who migrated to the Indian subcontinent from Central Asia around 1500 BCE, intermingled with the indigenous Dravidian people.
Why is the name of this class system "color"? Several interpretations exist. The most widely known theory traces it to the difference between the fair skin of the conquering Aryans and the darker skin of the indigenous Dravidian people. It is thought that, through the process of conquest and domination, skin color became an indicator of social hierarchy. However, explaining the formation of the varna system by skin color alone is considered overly simplistic, and there are multiple interpretations of both its etymology and how the system formed.
Another interpretation is that a symbolic color was assigned to each varna: white (purity) for Brahmins, red (strength and passion) for Kshatriyas, yellow (wealth and the earth) for Vaishyas, and black (ignorance and darkness) for Shudras. This color scheme is also linked to the three gunas (qualities) in Hindu philosophy: sattva (purity), rajas (passion), and tamas (darkness).
In modern research, the view that varna was a distinction based purely on skin color is being revised. The interpretation that color symbolically expressed differences in religious and philosophical "quality" is now the leading one. In any case, as the word "color" suggests, the concept of varna closely links visual distinction with religious hierarchy.
What gives religious legitimacy to the four varna divisions is the "Purusha Sukta," contained in the tenth book of the Rigveda, Hinduism's oldest scripture. This hymn, said to have been composed around 1000 BCE, recounts the origin of the four varnas as a creation myth of the universe.
According to this myth, when the primordial giant Purusha was offered as a sacrifice to the gods, four social groups were born from different parts of his body.
This bodily hierarchy is important. The mouth is at the very top, and the feet are at the very bottom. The tiers born from the upper part of the body were considered to have higher "purity," and those from the lower part were considered more "impure." This vertical relationship became the fundamental principle of "purity and impurity" in the caste system.
The Purusha Sukta served to justify social inequality as "cosmic order (rita)." The role of each varna was said to be determined by the gods, and following it was considered an individual's religious duty (dharma).
Each varna was assigned its own distinct social role (svadharma). This role was determined by birth and could not, in principle, be changed. Let's look at each tier in detail.
| Varna | Meaning in Sanskrit | Role | Symbolic Color | Population Share (Estimate) | Modern Occupation Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brahmin | One who recites words of prayer | Priests, education, religious rites | White | No official statistics | Teachers, priests, lawyers, scholars |
| Kshatriya | One who holds power | Governance, military, national defense | Red | No official statistics | Military officers, administrators, politicians |
| Vaishya | Inhabitant, settler | Commerce, agriculture, animal husbandry | Yellow | No official statistics | Merchants, bankers, farm owners |
| Shudra | One who serves | Service to the upper three varnas | Black | Traditionally a large share | Artisans, agricultural laborers, service workers |
※インドでは1931年以降、上位カースト別の国勢調査が行われておらず、バラモン・クシャトリヤ・ヴァイシャの現在の人口比を示す公式統計はありません。そのため表には人口比を記載していません。
Brahmins occupy the top of the four varnas and hold an exclusive role in performing religious rites and studying and transmitting the scriptures. They are responsible for the core of religious life, including reciting the Vedas, performing fire rituals (yajna), and officiating rites of passage (samskaras).
The reason Brahmins were ranked above Kshatriyas, who held political and economic power, lies in the hierarchy of "purity and impurity." Brahmins, who avoided physical labor and devoted themselves to intellectual and religious pursuits, were considered the most "pure" beings. The French social anthropologist Louis Dumont pointed out that this "ranking by purity" is the essence of the caste system.
Brahmins are said to make up a small share of India's total population (about 4.3% according to a 1931 estimate; there have been no official statistics by caste since then). However, their influence in education and administration remains substantial, and Nehru, India's first prime minister after independence, was also of Brahmin origin. It is still pointed out today that university professors and senior bureaucrats in India tend to include many people of Brahmin origin.
Kshatriyas are the royal and warrior class, responsible for governing and defending the state. "Kshatra" means "power and governance," and the name is derived from it. Historical figures such as Chandragupta of the Maurya dynasty and the royalty of the Gupta dynasty belonged to this class.
They rank second after Brahmins, but in actual political power they generally surpassed the Brahmins. A dual structure in which Brahmins held religious authority and Kshatriyas held secular power is one characteristic of Indian society. The two were mutually dependent, maintaining balance in a form where Brahmins gave religious legitimacy to royal authority and Kshatriyas provided the Brahmins with economic protection.
The Rajputs of modern India are a representative group of Kshatriyas, and centered on Rajasthan, they still maintain a culture that values a tradition of valor and honor.
Vaishyas are the class responsible for commerce, agriculture, and animal husbandry. The name derives from "vish" (to settle), and they play the role of supporting the economic foundation of the community. They rank lowest among the upper three varnas, but together with Brahmins and Kshatriyas they are included among the "twice-born" (dvija), and are permitted to study the Vedas and undergo the sacred thread ceremony (upanayana).
Since economic liberalization, businesspeople of Vaishya origin have come to wield significant influence both within India and abroad. The Ambani family (Reliance), one of India's leading conglomerates, comes from the Vaishya (Bania) caste. On Forbes' list of India's wealthiest people, those of Vaishya origin tend to dominate the top ranks, overwhelming other varnas in terms of economic power.
The Marwari merchants of Gujarat and Rajasthan are known as a group particularly skilled in business among the Vaishyas, and have built business networks across all of India.
Shudras are the lowest of the four varnas, with their main role being service to the upper three varnas. While Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were called "twice-born" (dvija) and permitted to study the Vedas, Shudras were not granted that right. They also could not undergo the sacred thread ceremony, and their participation in religious rites was restricted.
In India's population composition, people classified as Shudra make up the largest share. An estimated 50% or more are said to be Shudra, but the exact figure is a matter of debate (no census by caste has been conducted since 1931).
In post-independence India, many Shudras have been classified as OBC (Other Backward Classes) and are subject to the reservation system in education and employment. About 27% of quotas are reserved for OBCs, and they have also come to wield significant political influence.
People who belong to none of the four varnas are called Dalits (formerly known as “untouchables”). They make up about 16.6% of India's population, over 200 million people. They were forced into work considered "impure," such as disposing of animal carcasses and cleaning, and their contact with upper castes was strictly restricted.
Because Dalits were positioned "outside" the varna system, they received none of the benefits of varna: participation in religious rites, study of the scriptures, or social protection. The Purusha Sukta makes no mention of Dalits either, as they were excluded from the framework of the system itself.
To correctly understand the caste system, distinguishing between varna and jati is essential. These two concepts are frequently confused, but they are fundamentally different in nature.
| Point of comparison | Varna | Jati |
|---|---|---|
| Number | 4 categories (plus Dalits) | Thousands (varies by classification method) |
| Basis | Religious status; purity and impurity | Occupation, kinship, region |
| Scope | A framework common across all of India | Differs by region |
| Formation period | From around 1500 BCE | Formed around the 10th-12th centuries |
| Scriptural basis | The Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda | No scriptural basis |
| Nature | An ideological and religious framework | A social group that functions in daily life |
| Marriage regulation | In principle, within the same varna | Within the same jati (endogamy) |
| Relationship to occupation | A broad division of roles | Directly linked to specific occupations |
Varna is an ideological classification based on scripture, while it is jati that actually governs people's behavior in everyday Indian society. Norms directly tied to daily life, such as choice of marriage partner, rules for sharing meals, and residential segregation, are determined by jati.
As Kyoto University associate professor Aya Ikegame points out in a Toyo Keizai article, what is commonly understood in Japan as "caste equals a four-tier status system" is, in reality, nothing more than the concept of varna. What Indians perceive as "caste" in daily life are the thousands of jatis. Differences in business practices between India and Japan This distinction is also an important point for understanding this topic.
The varna system has a history of more than 3,500 years, but it has not been a fixed system; it has changed significantly over time.
In the earliest Vedic period (around 1500 to 600 BCE), the divisions of varna were relatively loose. The Rigveda contains descriptions of members of the same family pursuing different occupations, showing that the boundaries of varna were fluid.
During this period, varna is thought to have been closer to a social "division of roles" than a fixed "status." There was a degree of freedom in choosing an occupation, and interaction and marriage between different varnas were not completely prohibited.
The turning point came with the Manusmriti (Laws of Manu), compiled sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE. This code of law defined the norms of conduct between varnas in extreme detail, tightening the system.
The Manusmriti comprehensively regulates rules on food, marriage, contact, and occupation. Regarding intermarriage between varnas, "anuloma" (with the grain), in which a man of a higher varna married a woman of a lower varna, was permitted under certain conditions, while the reverse combination, "pratiloma" (against the grain), was strictly forbidden. This asymmetry served to maintain the varna hierarchy.
The Manusmriti is the greatest turning point in the history of the caste system, in that it fixed the once-fluid varna system as religious law and even prescribed penalties for violators.
Around the 5th century BCE, an ideological challenge to the varna system emerged. Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, though born a Kshatriya, preached human equality and rejected the varna system. Mahavira of Jainism likewise criticized discrimination based on birth.
However, the varna system did not disappear even during the periods when Buddhism and Jainism spread across India. Rather, Hinduism absorbed elements of Buddhism while reinforcing the varna system, and Buddhism eventually all but vanished from the Indian subcontinent, an episode that shows the resilience of the varna system.
British rule from the late 18th century onward further entrenched the varna system. Britain conducted a census from 1871, classifying and registering the entire Indian population by caste (varna plus jati). Caste boundaries that had until then been fluid, varying by region and circumstance, were thereby fixed as administrative records.
Under its policy of "divide and rule," Britain exploited conflicts between castes and even implemented policies classifying certain castes as "martial castes" or "criminal castes." These colonial-era classifications continue to influence caste consciousness in India today.
| Period | Event | Impact on varna |
|---|---|---|
| Around 1500 BCE | Migration of the Aryans | The origins of varna (a fluid division of roles) |
| Around 1000 BCE | Compilation of the Rigveda | The Purusha Sukta established a religious basis |
| 5th century BCE | Emergence of Buddhism and Jainism | Survived despite ideological challenges |
| 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE | Compilation of the Manusmriti | Fixed as a strict legal norm |
| 10th to 12th century | Formation of jati | Daily life came to function through jati |
| From 1871 | The British census | Administratively classified and fixed |
| 1950 | India's constitution enacted | Caste discrimination legally prohibited |
In 1950, the Indian Constitution prohibited discrimination based on caste, but the concept of varna remains deeply rooted in modern Indian society. Its influence can be seen in marriage, politics, and business.
Among the younger generation working in urban IT industries and startups, awareness of varna is fading. However, in choosing a marriage partner, varna (and jati) is still generally emphasized. India's largest matchmaking site, Shaadi.com, still has a caste field, and marriages across varnas commonly face strong opposition from families.
Cases of "honor killings" over inter-caste love marriages are reported in the hundreds each year, a serious social problem especially in rural areas. A large gap continues to exist between legal prohibition and social practice.
In elections, the "caste vote" is an important factor. Each political party has a support base among specific varnas or jatis, and caste is also taken into account when selecting candidates. India's demographic structure With this change, the political influence of Shudras and OBCs (Other Backward Classes) has rapidly expanded.
Since the implementation of the 1990 Mandal Commission recommendations, reserved quotas for OBCs have been expanded, triggering large-scale protests by upper castes opposed to the move. Interest conflicts based on varna remain one of the most sensitive themes in contemporary Indian politics.
When Japanese companies do business in India, knowledge of varna is indispensable in practice. Hiring Talent in India In this context, it is necessary to understand the workings of the reservation system (SC/ST/OBC quotas). Beyond the public sector, some states are also moving to require private companies to apply reservation quotas.
There are also situations in team building and relationship-building with business partners where caste-sensitive management is required. Religious considerations in India As with this, understanding social norms that do not surface Failures in entering the India market is the key to avoiding it.
Varna refers to the four broad status divisions based on Hindu scripture. "Caste," on the other hand, is a loanword derived from the Portuguese "casta" (lineage, bloodline), used as an umbrella term covering both varna and jati. Varna is part of caste, not equivalent to it.
Traditionally, varna has been determined by birth and considered unchangeable through individual effort. Historically, however, a phenomenon called "Sanskritization" has been observed, in which a group adopts the customs of a higher varna, such as vegetarianism or abstaining from alcohol, in an effort to raise its social status. This is a long-term, multi-generational process, distinct from change at the individual level.
People who belong to none of the four varnas are called Dalits (formerly known as “untouchables”) They are those historically forced into occupations considered "impure" and placed outside the varna system. They account for about 16.6% of India's population, more than 200 million people. Although untouchability was abolished under the 1950 Constitution, discrimination remains deeply entrenched, especially in rural areas.
Legally, caste discrimination is prohibited, but socially, the influence of varna persists. Varna remains a factor shaping people's behavior in modern India, through practices such as endogamy within the same varna in marriage, the "caste vote" in politics, and networks in economic activity. While meritocracy is spreading in urban IT industries, social norms based on varna still function in rural areas.
India's reservation system is a social institution based on varna (caste). Understanding reservation quotas is essential in hiring, promotion, and contracting with the government, and caste-based harassment constitutes a violation of the law. India's labor laws Basic knowledge of varna is also essential for understanding this.
Varna refers to the four basic status divisions in the Indian caste system: Brahmin (priests), Kshatriya (royalty and warriors), Vaishya (merchants), and Shudra (laborers). The Sanskrit word means "color," and the divisions are said to originate from ancient social categories.
Religious legitimacy is given by the Purusha Sukta of the scripture Rigveda. It is said that each varna was born from a different part of the body of the primordial giant Purusha, with higher purity attributed to the varnas born from the upper parts of the body. This hierarchy forms the principle of purity and impurity in the caste system.
Varna is a broad ideological and religious framework of four divisions based on scripture, common across all of India. Jati, on the other hand, is one of many social groups divided by occupation, lineage, and region, and it sets the norms for daily life, such as rules on marriage and meals. It is jati that Indians are said to be conscious of on a day-to-day basis.
The upper varnas, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas, are said to be a minority, with Shudras accounting for the largest share. However, no caste-based census has been conducted for a long time, and accurate figures remain a matter of debate. A small number of Brahmins have retained influence in education and administration.
Traditionally, varna has been determined by birth and considered unchangeable through individual effort. Historically, movements have been observed in which groups adopted the customs of a higher varna in an effort to raise their social status, but this is a long-term, multi-generational process.
India's reservation system is a social institution based on caste, and understanding it is required in hiring, promotion, and contracting with the government. Caste-based harassment constitutes a violation of the law. While meritocracy is spreading in urban areas, social norms still function in rural areas, and there are situations in workplace management and business dealings that require consideration.
Varna is the most fundamental concept for understanding India's caste system. Let's review the key points of this article.
An overview of the caste system and The Reality of Dalits Together with this, please understand the structure of Indian society from multiple angles.
[References and sources]
-Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, "Basic Data on India"
-JETRO, "India Overview"
-Wikipedia"Varna (Hinduism)"
-Wikipedia"Purusha Sukta"
-Wikipedia"Manusmriti"
-Sekaishi no Mado (World History Window), "Caste / The Caste System"
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